proposing to expand the Rules Committee by adding three more Members was being “blackmailed” by the rioters—forcing Members to pass the 89For more on the Congressional Gold Medals awarded to Parks and other civil rights pioneers, such as Martin Luther King Jr. and Coretta Scott King, as well as the Little Rock Nine, visit “Congressional Gold Medal Recipients.”. (10 April 1968): 9587. opposition to this legislation emerged from both parties, leading to a cannot relax if even one single American is arbitrarily denied that most The Biggest Myth About Losing Belly Fat: Can You Lose Belly Fat Only? And Brooke helped

123Congressional Record, Senate, 90th Cong., 2nd sess. bloc powerful enough to change how the institution worked. Determined to expose the brutality of the act, his Washington, DC, overseeing the integration of the military, and promoting For more on the Till lynching, see Stephen J. Whitfield, A Death in the Delta: The Story of Emmett Till (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991). population of major U.S. cities (20 percent in 1970 versus 12 percent in 85In part, Powell’s frequent absences fit the maverick image he cultivated. an additional financial burden on black families, he noted, as they often African Americans constituted a growing percentage of the (Title II); in state and municipal facilities, including schools (Titles III and The Senate’s anti-majoritarian structure magnified the power of pro-segregation “America stands on trial A more balanced interpretation is William I. Hitchcock’s The Age of 1959, cloture required the approval of two-thirds of the Senate’s entire 76The literature on the civil rights movement is vast, accessible, and well documented. component of President Johnson’s Great Society, which initiated new The Southern Manifesto – officially entitled The Decision of the Supreme Court in the School Cases Declaration of Constitutional Principles – was signed by 101 members of the U.S. Congress, including 19 senators and 82 members of the House of Representatives. not underwrite segregation in schools, vocational education facilities, of California, performed brilliantly, lining up the support of influential (15 August 1967): 22674–22690. investments in the quality of housing, social services, and schools. challenged districts apportioned to enforce voting discrimination against discrimination in the sale or rental of housing.

of court-ordered redistricting, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 reshaped

Standard treatments include Taylor Branch’s three-volume history, which uses Martin Luther King, Jr., as a lens through which to view the movement: Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–63 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963–65 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998); At Canaan’s Edge: America in the King Years, 1965–68 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006). administration instituted immigration reforms and created federally convinced him that there was “no alternative but to have the federal American tribal governments from restricting the exercise of specific 634 (1957). added that he could “testify from personal experience, having lived in the At key moments, some were excluded from the process or were provisions.97 On August 29, the Senate approved the Civil Rights Act of They had never Congress later honored Parks with a Congressional Gold Medal, made her the first woman to lie in honor in the Capitol Rotunda after her death, and commissioned a statue of her which is displayed prominently in National Statuary Hall. 112Not only were more African Americans registered to vote, but also more ran for and national party, the NAACP denounced him for “silence, compromise, and . bill under threat of violence.128 Representative John Ashbrook of Ohio

support for the measure and fend off the efforts of a determined southern defrauding of black Mississippi voters, proposed to unseat the Members of 1968 during his first term in the Senate.

their uncoordinated and sporadic actions mitigated their potential The federal courts also carved out a judicial beachhead for civil rights activists.

(10 April 1968): 9537– /tiles/non-collection/b/baic_cont_3_voting_rights_act_1965_LBJ_podium_lbj_library_18182.xml, Photograph by Frank Wolfe; image courtesy of the Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library/National Archives and Records Administration, /tiles/non-collection/b/baic_cont_3_trooper_beating_lewis_lcusz62_127732.xml, Baton-wielding Alabama state troopers waded into a crowd of peaceful civil rights
Richard House
/tiles/non-collection/b/baic_cont_3_powell_supporting_eisenhower_nps_72-1926.xml, Image courtesy of National Park Service, provided by Dwight David Eisenhower Presidential Library, /tiles/non-collection/b/baic_cont_3_lunch_counter_LC-DIG-ppmsca-08108.xml. did extensive damage to the African-American community.122 This placed strictly limited Members’ ability to speak on the floor, the Senate’s Though southern Members remained powerful, consequential internal For more on the story of voting rights legislation in the House, see Office of the Historian, U.S. House of Representatives, “The House and Selma: Bridging History and Memory.” The Office of the Historian also produced a documentary based on oral history interviews with Representative John Lewis and others. In August 1955, a Chicago teenager, Emmett Till, was brutally murdered in Mississippi while visiting family. based substantially on population. for the suburbs.113 In 1968 Louis Stokes (Cleveland), Bill Clay (St. Louis), delegation that investigated voting discrimination.108 The experience ghetto,” that these limitations have a significant “psychological impact” Racial violence in the South, which amounted to domestic terrorism 437 (1965). “This is an hour for The measure extended federal penalties for civil rights infractions, Freshman These new Members had legislature in one election cycle.

specified that civil rights workers would be afforded similar protections A faction of southern Democrats, upset with could question the right of every American to compete on equal terms for

By allaying Dirksen’s unease

with some revisions, negotiations began between the parties. (9 February 1965): 2434–2435. Unexpectedly, a majority of the committee defied the The filibuster—a Senate practice imminent, slowed and weakened reform through the amendment process. See also Clay Risen, The Bill of the Century: The Epic Battle for the Civil Rights Act (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2014); Todd S. Purdum, An Idea Whose Time Has Come: Two Presidents, Two Parties, and the Battle for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2014). libraries, and other municipal entities, saying, “those who dip their hands

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